Bibliographic Review Synopsis

This essay will discuss the importance of dance in African culture.  Africans were forced to change many aspects of their culture when they were bought to America.  Some aspects of African culture withstood European influence longer than others.  Weaker cultural traits such as language did not last very long, but stronger ones such as music and dance withstood European influence.  Some slaveholders would force their slaves to assimilate completely into European society leaving them none of their original culture unless they practiced it in secret.  Other slaveholders would allow their slaves more freedom to practice their culture as they pleased believing that this would allow the slaves to work harder for them and give them less reason to run away. 

"Afrocentricity, the Adae Festival of the Akan, African American Festivals, and Intergenerational Communication" written by Yaw Owusu-Frempong discusses the importance of African Festivals and dance to the African culture and heritage.  Owusu-Frempong discusses how preservation of cultural heritage can be transmitted between generations through dance and other festival activities.  Since language was ever-changing cultural preservation could be done through dance and other forms of body communication.  Esiaba Irobi argues in "What They Came With: Carnival and the Persistence of African Performance Aesthetics in the Diaspora" that “even after most African peoples lost their languages because of seasoning in the New World, phrases and fragments of their dances remained and survived as choreographic and phenomenological vocabularies of their original identity and cultural history” (Irobi, 899).  Dance was a surviving force that can even be seen in today’s American culture.

In "Batuque: African Drumming and Dance Between Repression and Concession, Bahia, 1808-1855" by Joao Jose Reis, the author describes how dance was a form of cultural expression.  It was seen as a “healthy distraction” for the slaves from their labors.  Slaveholders on the other hand may have viewed it as “a rehearsal for rebellion” (Reis, 202).  Whether it be a rebellious act or just a distraction from the slave’s life of servitude, dance was very important to the African people.  Many slaveholders would even allow their slaves to leave the home or plantation in order to get together and dance.  In "A Window on Slave Culture: Dances at Congo Square in New Orleans, 1800-1862" the author Gary A. Donaldson discusses the dances that the slaves were allowed to attend on Sundays during the time period.  Slave owners would allow their slaves some freedom on Sundays to do as they pleased and many gathered together to dance. 

Another article that discusses the importance of dance in African culture is Mary Arnold Twining’s  "Movement and Dance on the Sea Islands."  Twining describes how children are taught to dance before anything else and how dance is a part of daily life.  Dance was a very important part of African culture.  It was used for celebrations, rites of passage, births, and even war.  Dance was used for all different sorts of life events for individuals and for communities.  It was seen as a form of communication even after African language had all but disappeared from the slaves.  Dance was very important to Africans and African slaves.

Short Essay 5

There are many different definitions of freedom.  The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines freedom as “the quality or state of being free as: the absence of necessity, coercion, or constraint in choice or action” and “liberation from slavery or restraint or from the power of another.”  While this definition describes what most slaves wished to achieve during their life of servitude, Olaudah Equiano saw freedom as something more.  In his autobiography The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African Equiano describes his life and how he viewed slavery and freedom.  For Equiano freedom was controlled by God’s will.  Throughout his life, Equiano was able to see firsthand the difference between freedom as seen through the eyes of slaves and freedom through the eyes of Europeans as well as his own changing ideas of freedom.

Throughout his life, Equiano had been exposed to slavery.  As a boy he would see his father and others in his village go to war and their prisoners would become slaves in their village.  It was that way throughout much of Africa.  Europeans, however, treated their slaves very differently than Africans did.  In Africa, slaves became a part of the village and family, whereas Europeans treated their slaves as animals and property.  To Equiano freedom was a natural right that he had never dreamed would be taken from him.  When Equiano was taken from his home he had no idea the horrors he would be exposed to throughout his life.  His entire world was turned upside down and his ideas of freedom began to change.  He began to see that freedom was not something that he was privileged to, as he believed before.  Instead it was something that could be taken away by another.  Many times he had wished for death so that he could escape the horrors of slavery. 

Once enslaved, Equiano was introduced to Christianity and was baptized as such.  Throughout his life as a slave he maintained his belief in God and God’s will.  Equiano strongly believed that if it was God’s will to make Equiano a free man it would happen.  He also believed that if God wished him to remain a slave, there was nothing Equiano could do to change that.  Equiano worked toward doing his part to please God in order for God to allow him to become a free man.  He maintained his faith and continued to work hard for his masters and in part for himself all the while hoping that some day he would become a free man. 

Equiano shared his beliefs of freedom with many other slaves.  No person wishes to be held in bondage and forced away from family in order to work for another against their will.  Slaves would go to extremes in order to obtain their freedom.  Some would purchase their freedom if they had the privilege of having a master who would be willing to sell them, others would run away or even wish for death just so that they could be free from their Hell.  Equiano was lucky to have been able to purchase his freedom from his master.  Many slaves died in their efforts to obtain their freedom that they believed was a right that they were entitled to.  Europeans had a similar idea of freedom, but since they were not the ones being enslaved it was slightly different.  For a slave, freedom was deeper than the dictionary definition.  It meant not being oppressed and able to defend yourself and your family without fear of death. “When you make men slaves you deprive them of half their virtue” (Equiano, ).  

Short Essay 4

Slavery was a long-standing issue during the eighteenth century all over the world.  While most nations allowed slavery, France had a different approach.  In “There Are No Slaves In France” the author Sue Peabody outlines different court cases in which slaves were freed on the basis that their masters brought them to France, which was considered a free nation.  Peabody also describes different edicts that were created to establish more strict rules on the transport of slaves to France.  Slave owners who brought their slaves to France from the French colonies risked having their slaves freed if they did not follow proper procedures in registering their slaves.  There were many motivations for the French people to help free slaves who set foot on French soil including motivations based on principles and also motivation of personal gain.

The long-standing belief in the “Freedom Principle”, which was the belief that all persons who set foot on French soil were considered free, was one of the main motivations for people to free slaves (Peabody, 6-7).  This principle had been around for centuries.  Pierre Lemerre argued that there were three reasons for the association between France and Freedom.  The first being the edict of Henry II, which states that the “earlier kings could not tolerate their subjects to be in a servile position”, the second is the natural law that all men are equal, and the third being Christianity, that all men are created in God’s image and are not to be treated like an animal by other men (Peabody, 21).  This idea having been around for so long had been rooted into peoples mind and it was something that was followed without thinking about it.

Another motivation for setting slaves free in France was more for personal gain.  The lawyers who took on the cases did so partly because of the Freedom Principal and the other part was to increase the number of cases they had won.  Until it was established that these cases were easily won and the Declaration of 1738 could be challenged, it was difficult for slaves to find a sympathetic lawyer or to be able to pay for legal assistance (Peabody, 51).  Every case that was tried between 1755- 1800 on the basis of freeing a slave in the Admiralty Court of France was ruled in favor of the slave (Peabody, 55).  Lawyers knew this and so they were willing to take on these cases pro bono because it just increased their wins.

There were more motivations for freeing slaves such as that of religious beliefs.  The Roman Catholic Faith did not believe in the institution of slavery and therefore the King who was a follower of the Catholic Faith did not believe in slavery.  There were most likely more reasons to set free the African slaves, but Peabody seems to stress these points.  The Freedom Principle seemed to be the most motivating factor.  The Kings did not want to oppress their people with slavery and they believed that men should not be treated as animals.  Some people had more personal reasons such as the lawyers who took on the cases in order to increase how many wins they had in court.  Whatever the reasons for not allowing slaves in France, the King and Courts made sure the institution was not allowed on French soil.

Short Essay 3

Thousands upon thousands of Africans were taken from their homeland during the slave trade.  They were forced into cultures that they were unfamiliar with and others that they had been in frequent contact with.  To cope with this change, Africans created a Creole culture, which was a mix between their African descent and their new American surroundings.  Some Creole cultures focused more on the African culture than others; they were Creoles first- Americans second.  African sailors accepted more of the European and American culture as their own, they were Americans first and Creoles second.  According to W. Jeffrey Bolster in “Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail” Africans, free and slave, created a culture of  “Americanism” because of the unique opportunities they were given.

Bolster argues that the reason African sailors created a different Creole culture than other Africans was due to the unique opportunities they were given.  African sailors whether free or slaves were given many of the same opportunities as white sailors.  If a slave were skilled enough to pilot a ship he would be given the task.  “Skilled slaves” would develop “a sense of self-worth from handling people as well as vessels” especially if those they were commanding were free blacks (Bolster, 136).  Slaves who worked on the land were not able to build skills to better themselves as slave sailors did and that made sailors unique.

Black sailors were also given the opportunity to travel to many different places and come in contact with other cultures.  This not only increased their knowledge of the world, but it gave them a sense of freedom.  While other slaves were confined to the plantation on which they worked, sailors were given “considerable amounts of time without white supervision; substantial freedom of movement; and an independent income” (Bolster, 135).  The income that they earned was sometimes saved and used in order for a slave to buy his freedom.  Plantation slaves and others who worked on the land were rarely able to gain an income to purchase their freedom.

The “black Atlantic maritime tradition” as Bolster called it, allowed blacks to create a new culture based on their African heritage and the American culture they were in constant contact with (Bolster, 62).  The different lifestyle that black sailors became accustomed to was the main reason that they considered themselves Americans first and African Creoles second.  While they did create a new culture just as other Africans in other parts of the Americas did, sailor’s sense of freedom that they were given made them unique from other Africans.  Bolster argued that “a somewhat independent existence could be created within the bounds of slavery” (Bolster, 133).

Slave sailors were different from other slaves also because they were able to “develop skills, promote self-discipline, inculcate responsibility, [and] take pleasure from a job well done” (Bolster, 136).  While black sailors may have distrusted whites “they also learned that their white shipmates would frequently disregard conventional racial etiquette” (Bolster, 101).  African sailors were given unique opportunities to be treated like many whites.  As one man put it “in the presence of the sailor, the Negro feels as a man” (Bolster, 101).  Bolster had many arguments as to why African sailors were different than other Africans in America, but the unique opportunities that they were given such as freedom of movement and travel and the ability to pilot ships allowed African sailors to create their own Creole culture.

Short Essay 2

African slaves were forced into societies with cultures that were very different from their own.  When they were forced to leave their homes and were taken to the Americas many of them took much of their cultural identities with them.  Some slaves still managed to maintain some of their beliefs and practices by passing on knowledge to their children.  Over time many Africans had become devout Christians and Catholics, they began to speak Spanish or other European languages, and they adopted many European practices.  In order to maintain a sense of their heritage slaves modified their beliefs and cultural practices to suite their new surroundings (Thornton, 209-210). 

            The Catholic Church was very strict in their beliefs and anything that strayed from that was considered to be of the Devil (McKnight & Garofalo, 174).  It was not uncommon for an Afro-Latino, free or slave, to be accused of witchcraft or sorcery because they would continue to practice their pagan beliefs.  Many Africans and would use “a variety of charms, talismans, and rituals to bring themselves luck and to protect themselves from various maladies” (McKnight & Garofalo, 176).  This practice was brought with them from Africa, but the Church saw it as a threat and as idolatrous and therefore it was a crime.

One woman who continued to follow African practices was tried and convicted of witchcraft.  She was a baptized Catholic, but her beliefs were somewhat modified because of the knowledge she had of her African culture.  Paula de Eguiluz was tried three times for witchcraft; in 1624, 1632, and 1636 (McKnight & Garofalo, 175-177).  She was accused of killing an infant, disappearing without a trace, selling potions, and numerous other acts.  Paula de Eguiluz had done nothing wrong, in fact her explanations for each and every one of her accusations were very logical.  The baby was going to die anyway because its belly was swollen and all she did was wrap the baby up with some herbs, yet she was accused of sucking “the life out of her through her naval” (McKnight & Garofalo, 183).  She was also accused of disappearing and landing on a rocky area without getting hurt.  Her explanation for that was that she jumped out a window and landed in the water which is why she was unharmed.  Another accusation was that she had taken bones from a grave to grind up and give to her master to help him get better.  She said she was told to grind up the bones with some orange peel and rosemary and give to her master to remedy a fever, but she did not because her master would not let her. The simple acts of putting herbs on a dying baby and wanting to help her master get better caused her to be accused of witchcraft.  She had done nothing wrong except to follow pagan practices. 

Thornton argued that Africans brought their individual cultures over to the Americas and due to the European influence that they encountered cultures were modified (Thornton, 206). This becomes evident when looking at the trials of Paula de Eguiluz.  She was baptized as a Catholic and appears to believe in the Christian doctrine, yet her actions show that she still maintained some of her African culture.  She continued to use herbal remedies for healing and spells and even tried to give Christian purposes to them to satisfy the Church, but they were not satisfied (McKnight & Garofalo, 177).  Unfortunately Paula de Eguiluz was unable to practice and maintain her cultural practices without scrutiny, but it is evident that African culture did not disappear once Africans were brought to the Americas.

HST 300 Essay 1

There were many different cultures in Africa that Europeans had constant contact with.  Many of the slaves that were sold to Europeans were taken from the western coast of Africa.  According to Thorton there were three distinct cultures based on language within that area, with those three broken up into seven subgroups (Thorton, 186).  Upper guinea, including the Mande, the northern West Atlantic, and the southern West Atlantic; Lower Guinea which includes the Akan and Igbo; Angola Coast that includes Kikongo and Kimbundu (Thorton, 187-191).  Each set of languages was very similar to one another so it was not hard for people from the same region to be familiar with and able to understand one another. 

Trade frequently brought these different cultures together.  Slaves were frequently traded during these interactions.  It was not Europeans and their influence that started the slave trade it was something that Africans had been a part of for many years prior to the European slave trade (Thorton, 73).  In Africa wealth was measured in people; how many slaves a person owned determined how wealthy they were.  Slaves were used as a way to secure wealth or for “production of revenue and for performing administrative and military service” (Thorton, 89).  Even after Africans were taken from their homes and taken to either Europe or America, Africans were still able to maintain their cultural identities.   Not only was owning slaves a sign of wealth, but owning European textiles was also a way to show wealth.  Africans already had cloth, iron, and weapons, but owning European items gave Africans the opportunity to show that they were wealthy enough to purchase these items. 

Africans in America had to change and modify their way of life from how it had been in Africa when they arrived in the New World.  Many different cultures were forced together to work and live.  The result was many modifications being made to those African cultures.  Many slaveholders allowed their African slaves to create communities.  They would try to purchase slaves who originated from the same area in Africa and encourage them to create families so that they would be less likely to rebel (Thorton, 196).  When Africans were brought to America it was not hard for them to find other slaves who came from a similar region where they spoke a similar language and had similar “norms” (Thorton, 205).  This allowed the slaves to be able to connect with other slaves and maintain their cultural identities.

After the initial change and move to the Americas, Thorton argues that aspects of culture change based on their stability (Thorton, 207).  Language being very stable took much longer to change than did art and music.  European influence of language caused African language to change and even to completely disappear in some places.  It also made much of the ways of family life change.  Slaves were taken from their families and forced to create new bonds with people they did not know.  Many aspects of African life was the same as it was in Africa, but over time European culture influenced African culture and changed it and made it unrecognizable.

It was inevitable that African culture would change after being taken from their homes and sold into slavery.  People of different cultures had to come together so that they could try to feel more at home than they would if they isolated themselves.  Africans were able to maintain much of their cultural identity for some time, but slowly European influence became too strong.

Intro

My name is Meghan Berlin.  I have been studying US history as a history major since fall 09 and will be graduating this summer.  I have been attending ASU part time and I hope to become a teacher and be able to teach high school history when I am done.  I have taken HST 101, 327, 342, 405, 406, 408, 410, and 456.  I thoroughly enjoy learning about our nations past and how we have gotten where we are today.